ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

"Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between
electrically charged particles; the areas in which this happens are
called electromagnetic fields. Examples of this force include:
electricity, magnetism, radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible
light, X-rays and gamma rays."

"Electromagnetism is responsible for practically all the phenomena
encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Ordinary
matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular forces between
individual molecules in matter. Electromagnetism is also the force
which holds electrons and protons together inside atoms, which are
the building blocks of molecules. This governs the processes
involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between the
electrons inside and between atoms."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism

"Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena
resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These
include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning,
static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an
electrical wire. In addition, electricity encompasses less
familiar concepts such as the electromagnetic field and
electromagnetic induction."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

"Electric charge is a physical property of matter which causes
it to experience a force when near other electrically charged
matter. Electric charge comes in two types, called positive
and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects,
experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two negatively
charged objects. Positively charged objects and negatively
charged objects experience an attractive force. The SI unit of
electric charge is the coulomb (C), although in electrical
engineering it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah).
The study of how charged substances interact is classical
electrodynamics, which is accurate insofar as quantum effects
can be ignored.

The electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some
subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic
interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and
produces, electromagnetic fields. The nteraction between a
moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the
electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental
forces (See also: magnetic field)."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge

In the AV model, Ray is a one dimensional field, and we live in
an ocean of Rays.

Ray is electricity. Ray moves along a wire from mass center to
mass center. At each each mass center, Ray first converts to
Magno and then some Rays convert to a perpendicular Ray. This
perpendicular Ray hits the surface of the wire and converts to
Space. In doing so, it creates a local disturbance on the
surface as the main Ray moves along the wire. This local
disturbance appears negative and is known as the flow of
electrons or current flow.

If the wire is already in a magnetic field, then part of the
Ray converts to Linear motion.

If one moves a wire through a magnetic field, Linear motion
converts to Ray.

LIGHT

"The electromagnetic spectrum (E-M) is the range of all possible
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic
spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that
particular object.

The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used
for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end,
covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a
fraction of the size of an atom. The long wavelength limit is
the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the
short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck
length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and
continuous."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum

"Light or visible light is the portion of electromagnetic
radiation that is visible to the human eye, responsible for the
sense of sight. Visible light has a wavelength in a range from
about 380 or 400 nanometres to about 760 or 780 nm,[1] with a
frequency range of about 405 THz to 790 THz. In physics, the
term light often comprises the adjacent radiation regions of
infrared (at lower frequencies) and ultraviolet (at higher),
not visible to the human eye."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light

"The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense,
central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively
charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in
the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no
neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by
the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain
bound to each other, forming a molecule. An atom containing an
equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral,
otherwise it has a positive charge (electron deficiency) or
negative charge (electron excess) and is an ion. An atom is
classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in
its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical
element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of
the element."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

In the AV model, the concern is with the source of light as it
pertains to the three sizes of Shells: Large, Small, and
Smallest, or Atom, Neutron, and subNeutron. Light in this
article pertains to two spectrums.

ATOM

Questions
Imagine a standard model of a simple Hydrogen atom. There is
a neutron at the center and an electron in orbit. Remove the
neutron and ask where is the energy in Einstein's E=mcc? How
did this atom, electron and neutron
originate? Where will they end?

In the AV model, a Shell is a set of interlocking fields.
Imagine a small bar magnet and let it rotate so fast that the
North pole and South pole are at the same place. Let this bar
magnet rotate in all directions. Its surface looks like uncut
pile. When one touches something, one feels these piles and
not an electron in orbit. These Shells formed before the
Big Bang and will return to Space eventually.

In the AV Hydrogen atom, there is a small Shell inside a
normal Shell, i.e., a neutron inside an atom. The center of
this atom is where the incoming lines of Gravity convert to
expanding spheres of Space. Some incoming lines of Gravity
convert to Linear motion as mentioned above. It also
appears that a small amount of this incoming Gravity
converts to Ray. This Ray goes to surface of the atom and
converts to Space. Gravity converted to Ray during the
compression period before the Big Bang, and this appears
to be a carryover from that period.

As Ray converts to Space at the surface of the normal Shell,
it creates a local disturbance. As Ray rotates within the
atom, this disturbance also appears to rotate. This surface
disturbance is what one calls an electron.

The electron is negative because the viewer is outside the
atom, i.e., the Ray is on the other side. As this Ray passes
through the neutron, the viewer is on the same side as Ray.
In this case, the neutron has a positive disturbance and
is known as a proton.

NEUTRON

Let the neutron process its incoming Gravity in the same
manner as the atom. The difference is that the surface of
the neutron is not in contact with the local Space. It is
in the atom where there is a high density of other fields.
In this case, the Ray doesn't convert to Space, but it
converts to a point about which oscillate the fields of
Electro and Magno. This type of conversion also occurred
during the compression period.

Notice that there is no Linear motion associated with
this point. It is a point of light without any associated
mass. This photon rides outward on the expanding spheres
of Space like a surfer riding a wave into a beach. As it
moves into deep Space, it loses its energy and eventually
becomes a point in Space.

subNeutron

Now assume a subHydrogen atom. It has a subNeutron in a
neutron. Let this subNeutron process its incoming Gravity
in the same manner as the atom. The difference is that
the surface of the subneutron is in the neutron where
there is a very high density of other fields. In this
case, the Ray doesn't convert to a point of light in the
E-M spectrum. It converts to a point about which
oscillate the fields of Kone and Magno. This is the dark
light (D-L) spectrum. Our eyes did not evolve to see
this light so it appears black.

It is possible to have a neutron star that is large and
black. This is not a black hole. A black hole is a
collection of many subNeutrons which reconvert all
incoming materials to Space.

MAGNETIC FORCE

"Magnetism is a property of materials that respond at an atomic or
subatomic level to an applied magnetic field. For example, the
most well known form of magnetism is ferromagnetism such that
some ferromagnetic materials produce their own persistent
magnetic field. However, all materials are influenced to a greater
or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are
attracted to a magnetic field (paramagnetism); others are
repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much
more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field.
Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are
known as non-magnetic substances. They include copper,
aluminium, gases, and plastic."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism

In the AV model, an iron atom is magnetized when incoming
horizontal opposing Rays meet at the center of the atom and
convert to a toroidal field. The lines of this field go up
and circle around to come in the bottom. As they enter the
bottom of the atom, they combine to form a vertical outgoing
Ray. In short, horizontal Rays convert to a vertical Ray and
the Magno field acts as a catalyst.

In the AV model, all fields convert from one form to another
form. For one field to convert to the same field, a third
and different field is needed to act as a catalyst. And, all
fields reconvert to Space eventually.

Given a bar magnet, the North Pole is the end with the
outgoing Ray. The toroidal field creates a funnel at each
end. These funnels guide incoming lines of Gravity into
the magnet. The amount is the same at both ends, so
the bar doesn't move.

Given two bar magnets, placing opposite ends together
collapses their funnels. The incoming lines of Gravity
convert to Linear motion and this moves the opposing
ends together. Placing like ends together widens
their funnels and allows more lines of Gravity to enter,
and the added Linear motion moves them apart.

To test which is the North end of a bar magnet, one needs
a radiometer. Place two bar magnets about three inches
apart and in a fixed position so they cannot move. Place
the radiometer between them with a black vane facing an
end pole. If it moves, the end pole is the North Pole.
Don't rely on a letter written on the pole.

FORCE OF GRAVITY

"Gravity, a non-contact force between two objects. The force exerted
on each body by the other through weight is proportional to the mass
of the first body times the mass of the second body divided by the
square of the distance between them. The direction of the force is
from the body acted on towards the body applying the force. A
human body's weight is a non-contact force exerted by the Earth
on their mass."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_force

In the AV model, at the outer limit of Space during an expansion
period, Space converts to inward flowing radial lines of Gravity.
At a mass center, i.e., the center of a Shell, opposing lines of
Gravity convert to expanding spheres of Space. Unopposed lines
of Gravity convert to Linear motion. This Linear motion moves
the mass center inward and usually in the direction of another
mass center. Here, there is just a conversion of one field to
another field. Force is a human concept.

ATOM_5_QUARKS

._In physics, a quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. There are several quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom, and several leptons: electron neutrino, muon, and tauon.

._In the AV model, there are no quarks or leptons. The difference lies in the basic definition of an atom. In physics, the atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. In the AV model, there are just Shells within Shells. The three sizes are: normal, small and smallest, or atom, neutron, and subneutron. Each Shell comprises fields spinning at the speed of light so as to become self-locking. For example, the north and south poles of the magnetic fields are at the same place at the same time.

._Let’s start by smashing two atoms together. In physics, this means smashing two nuclei at high speeds to produce the quarks. In the AV model, the two normal Shells hit and unSpin, i.e., explode. The first happening is the conversion to Space. Although the two nuclei are only the diameter of a Shell apart, there is a thick wall of Space between them. It is like turning a corner and walking into a fifty mph wind. The neutrons which were traveling towards each other at the same high speed now slow as they move through the thick Space. This Space moves outward like a shock wave and is not visible to an observer or any photograph of the explosion.

._Along with this explosion is the conversion of the two Shells to other fields. Gravity, for example, continues its inward progress to the available mass centers. Its only affect appears to be the pushing of the neutrons and subneutrons into other Shells. If they are the Shells which are emitting photons, they soon disappear.

._Ray is the next field of interest. It would fire at each of the mass centers and convert to another field. It would produce many photons that a photograph could detect and many others that would go undetected. It would also convert to Linear motion at each of these mass centers and move them away from the center of the explosion. This would certainly slow the neutrons in the nuclei so that they would not hit each other with enough force to cause them to unSpin. These opposing Linear motion fields would also probably convert to Ray. The neutrons that were originally in orbit about the center of mass of their atom would continue their motion toward the center of the explosion, miss all other neutrons, and move away in an arc. Ray is not visible, but it could pass through the mass centers and produce a magnetic field of short life which could be detected. Ray would also hit any photographic plate or detection device.

._The other undetected fields would be Kone, Electro, Spin and subneutrons. Fields producing the EM spectrum might be detected, but those producing the Dark Light (DL) spectrum would not.

._The subneutrons are a special case. They may or may not be in the neutrons or even inside the colliding Shells. Remember, a neutron inside a Hydrogen atom may in fact be a subHydrogen atom or a suboxygen atom. The combinations are endless. A free subneutron would act like a free neutron. It could also emit photons before it disappeared inside another Shell.

._In physics, the experimenter is probably looking at a photograph of the explosion and trying to imagine what happened. There would be no limit to his imagination or the creation of new pieces of matter. It would be like making predictions from the northern lights. In the AV model, there is the field of Space and ten other fields. They would allow many combinations, but one cannot add any new matter. Given a choice, one should side with Ockham's razor and go with the AV model.

ATOM_4_PARTICLES

The author mentions four elementary particles: the neutron, the proton, the electron, and the photon. In the AV model, the neutron is a small Shell. The proton is a neutron with what appears to have a positive charged disturbance on it. The electron is a disturbance on a normal Shell or atom and appears negative. The photon is a point about which the fields of Spin and Ray exist. Streams of photons produce the electromagnetic spectrum (EM). In physics, a baryon is a combination of two or more neutrons and protons. They lump together the electron and photon as leptons because they have little mass. In the AV model, they have no mass. The AV model restricts mass to the center of a Shell. This is not the case in physics. It seems for something to exist it must have a mass.

The author says the neutron is unstable. If all by itself, it would become a proton and an electron. In the AV model, a free neutron is the same as a normal Shell or atom only smaller. Gravity acts on it and moves it to another mass center. It can enter a normal Shell and become part of its nuclei. This may result in an electron and a proton, but the neutron is not an unstable particle.

The positron or anti-electron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. Positrons were discovered in 1932 by Carl D. anderson, who gave the positron its name. The positron was the first evidence of antimatter and was discovered by passing cosmic rays through a cloud chamber and a lead plate surrounded by a magnet to distinguish the particles by bending differently charged particles in different directions. This anti-electron led to anti-matter to an anti-universe.

There is no anti-matter in the AV model. The word ‘universe’ means one not two or more. So, what was Anderson looking at in his cloud chamber? To answer this question, it is first necessary to talk about electricity in a wire. When Ray moves though a wire, it moves from mass center to mass center. At each center, it converts to the Magno field and then back to Ray. The north pole of the magnetic field is in the direction Ray is moving. The magnetic field acts a catalyst. The same conversions happen in the cloud chamber. However, the cloud chamber is not uniform in its structure as a copper wire. The cloud chamber is full of water molecules plus Oxygen and Nitrogen. And as mentioned above, a water molecule can be of any configuration. One of which is a straight line configuration of Hydrogen-Oxygen-Hydrogen (HOH). Another configuration is a triangle where the two Hydrogen atoms touch each other.

The source of the cosmic rays in Anderson’s experiment is not important because we are interested in Ray which he never knew existed. So, in this first example, Ray moves in a straight line from center to center especially in the Oxygen atoms which have the most neutrons. As Ray moves, each water molecule becomes a small weak magnet pointing north in the direction of Ray. This causes it to move slightly to the south pole of the main magnet in the experiment. There is also a small conversion to photons of light so the experimenter can see the curved path of Ray.

In the second example, Ray moves in a straight line from center to center in the Hydrogen atoms. In each triangular water molecule, Ray also loops clockwise through the Oxygen atom on the right. This results in a magnetic south pole pointing in the direction Ray is traveling. This also causes it to move slightly to the north pole of the main magnet in the experiment.

The author also talks about protons and antiprotons where the antiprotons have a negative charge. In the AV model, this means the proton has a Ray leaving the neutron. The viewer is on the side of Ray which makes the disturbance appear positive. If the Ray is weak and only converts to Space, The viewer is on the bottom side of Ray which makes the disturbance appear negative.

As for the neutrino, the author mentions that Wolfgang Pauli suggested the existence of the neutrino and Enrico Fermi worked out a detailed theory of the neutrino production to save the conservation laws. In 1953 Clyde L. Cowan, Jr. and Frederick Reines sat up an experiment and detected the antineutrino. Their view of the neutrino was that it was uncharged, massless, and traveled at the speed of light. Today in physics, neutrinos have a minuscule, but nonzero mass and there are three types.

In the AV model, Ray has no mass. Actually, we live in a sea of Rays. Rays are of different lengths depending on their energy. As Ray moves into deep Space, the points which comprise a Ray fade into the points of the expanding Space.

ATOM_3_FORCES

. There are four fundamental interactions in particle physics: Strong, Gravitation, the electromagnetic force, and the weak interaction. It should be understood that in the AV model, there is no force per se. There are just fields converting to other fields as everything converts to Space. Force is a human term used to describe a move of something or of work. Newton’s laws help define local motions, e.g., F=ma, Force equals mass times acceleration.

. Gravitation is the natural phenomenon of attraction between massive bodies. In the AV model, unopposed incoming lines of Gravity convert to Linear motion at a center of mass, i.e., a Shell’s center, and move the mass in the direction of the incoming lines of Gravity. Gravity is a compressive force. There is no attraction or action at a distance. It just appears that way.

. A stronger attractive force was postulated to explain how the atomic nucleus was bound together despite the protons' mutual electromagnetic repulsion. This hypothesized force was called the strong force, which was believed to be a fundamental force that acted on the nucleons (the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus). Experiments suggested that this force bound protons and neutrons together with equal strength. The key here is electromagnetic repulsion.

. In physics, electromotive force, or most commonly emf or volts is that which tends to cause current (actual electrons and ions) to flow. In the AV model, there are no electrons and no flow. If one moves a copper wire across magnetic lines, then Linear motion converts to Ray which moves along the wire and one has an electric generator. If one sends Ray through a copper wire in a magnetic field, then Ray converts to Linear motion and one has an electric motor. So, electromotive force is different from electromagnetic repulsion.

. In physics, electromagnetism is the electromagnetic field, a field that exerts a force on particles with the property of electric charge and is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles. The key here is electric charge.

. In physics, the electric charge on a body may be positive or negative. Two positively charged bodies experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two negatively charged bodies. A positively charged body and a negatively charged body experience an attractive force. The key here is electric charge.

. In physics, the positive electric charge is carried by a single proton, or equivalently, the negative of the electric charge carried by a single electron. Again, in the AV model, there is no electron per se. At the center of a Shell, incoming opposing lines of Gravity convert to expanding spheres of Space. A small amount of this incoming Gravity converts to Ray. This appears to be a leftover from the compression period. This small Ray moves to the surface of the Shell and creates a disturbance as it converts to Space. This disturbance is what one calls an electron. As Ray rotates inside the Shell, the electron appears to be in an orbit. To a human, this electron appears negative because Ray is on the other side. On a small Shell or neutron in the normal Shell, the disturbance appears positive because Ray is on the same side as the viewer.

. In physics, it is possible to rub amber or glass to obtain an electrical charge and demonstrate the effect of the charge by touching an electrometer and seeing the foils separate. How is this possible in the AV model?

. The AV model has the small Shells or neutrons in orbit about the center of a normal Shell instead of piled up in the center. Given an atom or normal Shell in room like conditions, some neutrons will be in orbit. Let’s say rubbing the atom converts Linear motion to Ray which converts to Spin in the neutrons and their orbit grows larger along with their rotation rate. The Ray coming from the center of the atom passes through these neutrons to produce the orbiting electron. The number of these electrons appears to have increased, and they are moving faster in their orbits. The viewer says the object containing the atoms has a negative electric charge. The opposite is also true. The orbital energy decreases and a neutron could even drop into the center.

. Let’s now move to the electrometer and touch the top with our negatively charged probe. In this case, the extra energy moves into the atoms as Ray and turns each leaf into a magnet. The incoming Gravity tries to move them apart at the top but this is impossible. This Gravity converts to Linear motion and tries to level the leaves, and they appear to move apart. Think of sitting on a bridge with a twenty foot 2x4 piece of wood hanging down. Now hold the end and try to rotate the 2x4 upward to the horizontal position. It becomes harder to rotate the 2x4 as its center of gravity moves away from your vertical position.

. Which interpretation is correct? Well, it is easy to test. Let the leaves in the electrometer hang straight down with no charge on them. Place a compass on each side of the leaves and again touch the top with the charged probe. The compass needles will turn as appropriate.

. Let’s now return to the strong force. Without the electromagnetic repulsion, there is no strong force. So, what is it that holds the neutrons and protons together? Look at the above Helium atom. Neutrons are pinning the normal Shells together. How this is done is unknown. Dropping down a level, it is possible to have subneutrons pinning the protons and neutrons together. Another possible way is just to have the small Shells interlock on each other.

. The weak interaction changes one flavor of quark into another. This is not in the AV model.